After Qin Shi Huang Ying Zheng unified the six warring states, the Central Plains of China experienced a complex political landscape for many centuries. Throughout this extended period, only about two-thirds of the time was China truly or nominally unified under a central government. For the remaining one-third, the region was fragmented into competing states. Besides the well-known dynasties like Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing, there existed numerous short- to medium-lived regional regimes during these fragmented eras, each controlling territories that were neither too large nor too small.
For example, following the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty, the Central Plains saw the emergence of a dozen or so states such as Yan, Zhao, and Xia. These kingdoms proclaimed themselves kings or emperors, each establishing their own local regimes. However, these entities were quite small and lacked lasting influence or strong historical footprints. Except for avid historians, very few can clearly recount their origins or reasons for their eventual disappearance.
In contrast to these minor regimes, there was one relatively “legitimate” dynasty widely recognized by its neighbors, which lasted over three centuries. At its peak, this dynasty controlled much of Southwest China. Yet, surprisingly, it remains largely overlooked and is even mistaken by many as mythical. This dynasty is the Dali Kingdom.
Many people today have likely heard of the Dali Kingdom through Jin Yong’s famous novels. Historically, however, Dali was established earlier than the Song dynasty. It is considered a genuine dynasty because it maintained independence from the central Chinese system, its rulers declared themselves emperors, and it operated with its own distinct era names and calendrical system.
When the Central Plains were embroiled in the chaotic power struggles among the Liao, Song, Xia, and Jin dynasties, the Dali Kingdom, located in the remote southwest, remained mostly uninvolved in conflicts with any of these powers. Although the Western Xia was also a fragmented regime that frequently pledged nominal allegiance, it fought prolonged wars against the Song and Liao, at times defeating both and significantly boosting its historical prominence.
Compared to Western Xia, however, Dali’s profile was far more modest. It had little ambition beyond maintaining internal stability. Its territory was sufficient for its rulers, who showed no desire for expansion or rivalry, preferring a policy of non-interference and peaceful coexistence. The emperors often abdicated early to retire into a peaceful, Buddhist-inspired lifestyle, reflecting their detached, tranquil governance style.
When people discuss dynasties like Song, Ming, or Qing, many can recall numerous figures and events related to them. But when it comes to Dali, most are left puzzled, unfamiliar with its historical narrative or significance.
Nonetheless, some Dali emperors have gained a degree of recognition. Like the Song dynasty, Dali experienced a brief collapse, dividing history into the periods of Former Dali and Later Dali. The founder of the Later Dali was Emperor Wen’an, Duan Zhengchun. His name might sound familiar because he served as the prototype for a key character in Jin Yong’s novels.
Even more famous than Duan Zhengchun was his son Duan Yu, who in the fiction mastered the legendary Six Meridian Sword technique, making him a peerless warrior even compared to Qiao Feng. While the Six Meridian Sword is a fictional invention, the historical figure inspiring Duan Yu was named Duan Zhengyan.
Duan Yu, historically, was instrumental in reviving the Southern Silk Road around the age of forty. His grandson, also immortalized by Jin Yong as the great monk Yideng, was a devout Buddhist who undertook extensive temple restoration projects. Unlike the fictional Yideng who became a monk, the real Duan Zhixing never formally took monastic vows but was deeply religious. His focus on Buddhism and temple building, however, contributed to the gradual weakening of the kingdom’s power.
The last chapter for the Dali Kingdom ended as a secondary player in history. In 1253, Kublai Khan, aiming to conquer the stubbornly resistant Southern Song, adopted a strategy of concealing his true intentions. By feigning non-aggression, he encircled and ultimately destroyed the Dali Kingdom. This conquest opened the southwestern gateway for the Mongols, enabling them to launch a northern advance into the Southern Song territories. The fall of Dali thus marked a critical turning point, exposing the Song dynasty to dual attacks from the north and south, which eventually led to its downfall.
