China’s rich history spans over five millennia and has been marked by countless heroic figures. Even after thousands of years, the legendary deeds of these heroes remain widely known and celebrated. Take, for example, Huo Qubing’s famous pursuit of the Xiongnu with his 800 cavalrymen, which marked the first historic conquest of Wolf Mountain (Fenglang Juxu). This feat set a benchmark for all future military generals in China.
However, as the number of heroic figures grew and with the influence of various folk tales and literary works, many fictional characters began to be accepted as historical figures. Today, some names sound very familiar despite lacking any real historical basis. Let’s explore three such figures, examining their origins and how they have been portrayed in history.
Chen Shimei
When this name is mentioned, many instantly associate it with a heartless betrayer. Yet, few realize that the character Chen Shimei first appeared in the book Zeng Xiang Bao Longtu Pan Baijia Gongan. Although the storyline closely resembles what we know today, the author never claimed it was based on a real historical figure.
Considering the actual era of Judge Bao (Bao Zheng), there was no record of a young man named Chen Shimei who became a top scholar and then was fortunate enough to be appointed a prince consort. This confirms that the story is entirely a later invention. Originally, the tale had limited circulation, and few knew the full details. It was only after the Qing dynasty’s addition of Xu Sanxia Wuyi, a sequel to the classic Sanxia Wuyi, that Chen Shimei’s character became more complex and sinister, leading to wider public awareness.
Having just passed the imperial exam as top scholar and married into royalty, Chen Shimei cruelly rejected his first wife who came to the capital to seek help. Instead of sympathy, he plotted to murder her to silence her. Fortunately, Judge Bao saw through the deceit and not only saved Qin Xianglian and her son but also used the infamous “Dog Head Guillotine” to punish Chen Shimei, serving justice for the people.
The story resonated with popular anger, providing a cathartic outlet through literature, which helped the tale of Chen Shimei spread widely. Consequently, many accepted the narrative without questioning its historical accuracy.
Diao Chan
Another well-known figure is Diao Chan from the Three Kingdoms period, famously portrayed in Romance of the Three Kingdoms and celebrated as one of China’s Four Great Beauties. But did she truly exist? Historical evidence suggests she did not.
During the turbulent late Eastern Han dynasty, the country was torn apart by chaos and warlords competing for power. Under such conditions, the idea of one woman successfully turning warlords Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu against each other is extremely unlikely. Perhaps because of this, Diao Chan stands out among many beauties of that era as a top figure. However, no contemporary historical records mention Diao Chan. She likely originated as a fictional character, embraced by popular culture and storytelling.
What matters more is the symbolic meaning attributed to her—a woman who sacrificed herself for her country, achieving what many officials and generals could not. This has earned her enduring respect, regardless of her historical authenticity.
As a result, few today question her real existence. The appeal of her story and the admiration for her character overshadow the lack of historical proof.
Hua Mulan
The last figure, Hua Mulan, is a legendary female warrior whose story of taking her father’s place in the army is known across China. However, the historicity of Mulan remains uncertain and widely debated.
First, Hua Mulan is said to have lived among male soldiers for twelve years without her identity being discovered, which strains credulity. Such a long concealment in a closely bonded military environment seems improbable.
Second, when matching the battles described in Mulan’s story against historical military records, there is little to no documentation of those specific conflicts. This raises doubts, suggesting these battle accounts were likely added by storytellers to enrich Mulan’s narrative.
Third, traditional Chinese society was highly patriarchal, with women’s roles strictly limited. Under such constraints, it would have been extraordinarily difficult for a woman to impersonate a male soldier and achieve military success as Mulan did.
Furthermore, analyzing the original poem Ballad of Mulan, contradictions emerge. Lines describing her weaving skills at home contrast with references to the northern nomads’ cavalry expertise, blending southern and northern cultural elements. This mix suggests the story is a constructed legend rather than a factual account.
Taken together, these details point to Hua Mulan as a fictional creation designed to inspire and symbolize courage and filial piety rather than a verified historical figure.
